Food Business and Development - Doctoral Theses

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Organisational culture and organisational strategy in Irish credit unions
(University College Cork, 2024) O'Sullivan, Patrick; McCarthy, Olive; Byrne, Noreen; Power, Carol
This study explores organisational culture and organisational strategy in Irish credit unions and the relationship between them. It seeks to fill a gap in an area that has not previously been studied in the sector in terms of credit unions developing an understanding of the type of culture and the type of strategy that prevails, which in turn can help to support management in how they manage and compete. The literature review highlighted the complexity of both concepts and a methodological framework was established for the measurement of culture and strategy. This framework allowed for the identification of culture types and strategy types and for comparing both across the credit union sector. A statistical analysis was used to explore the relationship between these variables. The methodological framework developed also enabled a deeper exploration of organisational culture through the measurement of cultural strength and cultural congruence. The study involved a survey of 73 credit unions and interviews with 16 credit unions. The findings illustrate that the predominant culture is internally focused, but flexible in its approach, where priority is given to the harnessing of human resources with leaders being facilitators and mentors. To a lesser extent, the culture was found to be rules-based, internally focused and stable. The predominant culture of Irish credit unions can be described as ‘clan-type’ with strong cultural strength. The predominant strategy type was found to be stable but can change from a narrow to a broader value proposition depending on the opportunities afforded. Strategy was further explored through in-depth qualitative interviews with CEOs in the 16 selected credit unions. These credit unions selected for interview were identified in the quantitative phase based on their strategy type. The qualitative analysis identified the components of the strategy types. The relationship between strategy types and culture types was found not to be statistically significant but culture strength was found to be statistically associated with strategy type. One of the main theoretical and methodological contributions of the research includes the development of a methodology for the measurement of both culture and strategy. The predominance of an internally focused culture suggests staff commitment and efficiency as well as values that typically align with the credit union ethos. The internal focus may also suggest a weakness in that it is typically less focused on the external environment and is less adaptable to change, which may have an impact on strategy development. However, the predominance of this type of culture can also help to shape the strategy to the extent that its inward focus and emphasis on people, together with the cultural strength, influences to some degree the predominance of the hybrid approach of both a stable and changing value proposition which is one of the practical contributions of the study.
Reimagining small firm growth for a post-growth context: a regional study of artisan food producers at farmers' markets
(University College Cork, 2024) Connolly, Richael; Bogue, Joseph; Repar, Lana; Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences
Food production and consumption pose pressing and unavoidable challenges for society. A consolidated global food system has increased the output of ultra-processed food and threatens the livelihoods of small food producers. At the intersection between food, people, and the environment are locally embedded spaces such as farmers’ markets. This study reimagines firm growth from the perspective of artisan food producers who operate at farmers’ markets within the context of sustainability and limited resources. Post-growth is an approach that moves beyond economic growth as a primary agenda. A multi-level critical realist methodology is taken to form a mixed-methods regional research design. This design involved the application of a novel theoretical framework that synthesises Penrose’s seminal theory of firm growth with Bourdieu’s practice theory to position firm growth as emergent, incorporating social and cultural factors. A policy analysis was conducted on Irish food strategies. Twenty-five farmers’ markets were visited in Munster, southwest Ireland. Quantitative survey data was collected from eighty-eight artisan food producers, qualitative data from observations and informal conversations, and ten key field informant interviews. Eight purposively selected case studies were undertaken representing four identified typologies of artisan food producers. It was found that farmers’ markets in Ireland represent resilient spaces (interstices) for an artisanal way of doing business. In addition, they play a vital role in redressing the balance in the food system by contributing to non-economic industry needs. Yet only 3% of the national food strategy targets incorporate local food production. The survey showed that 93% of respondents operated place-based, product-focused, family-oriented micro-businesses different from a traditional food-in-retail business model. An output is an empirical framework of business development centred around the symbiotic relationship of artisan knowledge and selling at farmers’ markets. A contribution is made to redescribe firm growth theory from this perspective, which contributes to reimagining firm growth for a post-growth context. The study’s applied critical realist framework contributes to methodology. From this study’s small business perspective of farmers’ markets, targeted policy recommendations were developed to recognise, support and foster artisan food producers’ contribution to positive food environments.
The competitiveness of the Irish dairy industry in the global market: farm to trade
(University College Cork, 2023) Cele, Lungelo Prince; Hennessey, Thia; Eakins, John; Thorne, Fiona; Teagasc
The removal of the EU milk quota in 2015 has increased the exposure of the Irish dairy industry to international competitors and has raised the question of how competitive is the Irish dairy industry in the global market. The purpose of this thesis was to measure Irish dairy sector –competitiveness by examining the interaction between the farming system and the trading system of processed dairy products in the global market. In the context of the removal of the EU milk quota in 2015, it examined the competitiveness trends and rankings of the Irish dairy sector at the farm and trade levels, relative to selected European Union (EU) Member States. In 2019, Ireland was the third-largest exporter of butter in the world butter market and Irish butter prices were more volatile than other Irish dairy products. Despite the significance of butter in the dairy industry, empirical research that examines the market price dynamics and international competitor behaviour in the butter market has remained scarce. The thesis contributed to the objectives of the Food Wise 2025 and the Food Vision 2030 policies by examining the dynamics between farm milk and butter prices (linking farm and trade levels) to ensure that there is a transfer of benefits from trade to farmers through price transparency. Competitiveness indicators including partial productivity measures and accountancy-based indicators were used for farm competitiveness, and net export market share and normalised revealed comparative advantage were used for export competitiveness. A stochastic meta-frontier approach was adopted for comparing Irish regional farm technical efficiencies (proxy for farm competitiveness). The vector error correction model was applied to test the extent to which changes in competitor prices and farm milk prices had an impact on Irish butter prices. It was also used to measure the competitiveness integration relationship between global butter competitors. Amongst the countries examined, Ireland had the highest growth in partial productivity indicators and was ranked first with the lowest total costs and cash costs per kg of milk solids post-quota amongst the main European competitor countries examined. The potential challenge for Irish dairy farmers is how to lessen the relatively high land and labour costs to come in line with the main European competitor countries, which can limit farm competitiveness in the long-run. Based on the Irish regional farm technical efficiencies, the findings suggested that policies aiming to promote labor use and soil quality improvement in the East region would be useful for improving efficiency in that region post-quota. The findings also suggested that policies that related to discussion groups and management of herd size in the South region would also be useful for improving efficiency in that region post-quota. Some farms expanded beyond their optimal scale leading to a reduction in efficiency levels, especially in a region like the South West. That pointed to the need to tailor farm advice and promote caution in relation to farm expansion decisions. The regional growth patterns and insights may be used for adapting the national policy frameworks to regions in policy dialogues, i.e. to achieve the Food Vision 2030 with ambitious targets set for expansion. While Irish dairy products, such as butter and powders, have demonstrated growth potential in competitiveness post-quota, other products, i.e. cheese and liquid milk have declined. Despite the growing competition in the global butter market, Ireland became the second most competitive country in the world and was advancing rapidly at the time of analysis. Irish butter was the only Irish dairy product that had maintained a comparative advantage. Irish butter prices were more responsive to shocks in New Zealand butter prices and Irish farm milk prices in the long-run with positive bidirectional causality effects. Based on the findings, Irish dairy farmers and processors were more susceptible to pricing decisions made by international butter processors. Irish butter exports were found to be less susceptible to competitiveness changes in Belgian butter exports and more sensitive to competitiveness changes in NZ butter exports. Consequently, the key players in the Irish dairy industry can now better position themselves in the global dairy market, recognising the competitiveness dynamics of the different dairy products and their competitors. The thesis policy recommendations and areas for future research were presented in the conclusion section.
Evaluation of the manufacture of cheese from micellar casein concentrate or using novel coagulants
(University College Cork, 2022-09-23) Li, Bozhao; McSweeney, Paul L. H.; Kelly, Alan; Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Ireland; Food Institutional Research Measure
Novel materials and coagulants for cheese manufacture are currently of interest since the development of membrane filtration technology and gene recombination technology may offer opportunities for innovation in cheese manufacture. A novel dairy material – micellar casein concentrate (MCC) – is the co-product of whey protein recovery. As the main protein source in cheese is casein, MCC has the potential to be a starting material for cheese manufacture. The objective of the work presented in the first part of this thesis was to evaluate the feasibility of the manufacture of Cheddar and Quarg cheeses from micellar casein concentrate. In addition, camel chymosin has been reported to cause less proteolysis as a coagulant for cheese manufacture compared to bovine chymosin. The suitability of manufacture of Cheddar cheese using a novel camel chymosin with structural changes was also investigated. The rennet and acid coagulation properties of micellar casein concentrate were evaluated. MCC had a higher casein in total protein content compared to low heat skim milk powder (LHSMP), and shorter rennet coagulation time and higher gel strength were found in MCC compared to that of LHSMP. A gelation pH value greater than 5 was found in MCC. MCC produced by cold microfiltration (MF) formed acid-induced gels with high strength at pH 4.6, while the gel strength of acid-induced gels formed by warm MF MCC reached the highest at a pH value of around 5 and decreased below this value due to rearrangements of the casein network. The suitability of the manufacture of Cheddar cheese from MCC was subsequently investigated; standard control milk, skim milk with cream, reconstituted MCC with cream and reconstituted LHSMP with cream were used for comparison. The use of MCC led to increased proteolysis compared to the other treatments, linked to higher plasmin and chymosin activities in the cheese. Increased springiness, cohesiveness and meltability were found in Cheddar cheese manufactured from MCC. For the manufacture of Quarg cheese, lower moisture and higher protein contents were found in cheese made from MCC compared to that made from LHSMP. Cheese made from hot MF MCC showed the highest hardness compared to that made from LHSMP or cold MF MCC. Higher glycomacropeptide (GMP) content was found in cheese whey made from MCC. The suitability of manufacture of Cheddar cheese using a modified fermentation-produced camel chymosin (mCC) was investigated; fermentation-produced bovine chymosin (BC) and camel chymosin (CC) were used for comparison. The use of mCC led to reduced proteolysis compared with BC or CC, and higher instrumental and sensory hardness and lower meltability were found in cheeses made using CC or mCC compared to BC. Descriptive sensory analysis indicated less sulphur and barny flavour in cheese made with CC and mCC, while cheese made using mCC showed the lowest brothy flavour and bitter taste. Finally, the proteolytic specificity of the three generations of chymosin on NaCN at pH 5.2 with 5% NaCl and 6.5 and in proteolysis of Cheddar cheese made using these coagulants were investigated. Many peptides were identified through liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) in both NaCN digests and Cheddar cheese made using each chymosin. Other than the majority of peptides produced by BC and CC reported in the literature, some new peptides were identified in this study as well. The proteolytic activity of mCC was relatively lower than that of BC and CC. Overall, the results presented in this thesis will support the innovation and application of new materials for the manufacture of cheese and other dairy products and add to the understanding of the properties of three generations of chymosin when used in cheese manufacture.
Developing indicators of the social sustainability of farming using the Teagasc National Farm Survey
(University College Cork, 2022) Brennan, Mary; Hennessy, Thia; Dillon, Emma; Teagasc
The emergence of agricultural and food sustainability as a major societal objective has resulted in a considerable shift in the focus and design of EU policy relating to agriculture, food, and rural development. As such, the dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental and social) are reflected in the Farm to Fork Strategy and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 2023-2027. The monitoring and evaluation of policy is a key element of the new CAP and consequently, there exists a need for harmonised multidimensional indicators to gauge progress towards specific sustainability targets. Moreover, the transition of the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) to the Farm Sustainability Data Network (FSDN) reflects the commitment of the European Commission to enhancing sustainable farming practices, and this necessitates an expansion of existing farm level indicators to improve policy monitoring and evaluation, particularly with regard to social and environmental metrics. In response to this policy need, this thesis aims to contribute to the ongoing development of sustainability metrics at the farm level, cognisant of evolving policy themes and drivers impacting Irish and European agriculture, and focuses on social indicators of sustainability. Indicators to assess the economic, and more recently, environmental sustainability of agricultural systems have dominated much of the sustainability discourse to date, with little on the assessment of social sustainability. The broad nature of social sustainability does not lend itself readily to measurement by conventional, quantitative means. An extensive review of the literature suggests that agricultural social sustainability can be considered as either ‘internal’ (relating to farmer wellbeing) and ‘external’ (at societal level)’, encompassing animal welfare and community wellbeing. Expanding on this ‘internal’ and ‘external’ classification, and following consultation with stakeholders, this thesis categorises social sustainability into dimensions reflecting farmer, animal and community wellbeing, and identifies relevant indicators for each dimension. Farmer wellbeing incorporates elements relating to quality of life (i.e. working hours, stress etc.), animal wellbeing consolidates herd level welfare data, while community wellbeing examines indicators measuring multifunctionality, service accessibility and heritage and culture (including generational renewal). Statistical analysis of data collected through a special survey, in addition to supporting socio-demographic data from the Teagasc National Farm Survey (NFS) relayed key information on the social sustainability of Irish farms. From a farmer wellbeing perspective, this research finds that dairy farmers are more likely to experience farm related stress relative to operators of cattle, sheep or tillage systems. In addition to a stress assessment, this thesis assessed farmer wellbeing levels through the development of a composite index, the Farmer Sustainability Index (FSI), comprising indicators which reflect farm continuity, community and social connections, and farmer comfort. The FSI indicates that farmers working in the cattle sector, of older age profile, and residing in more peripheral regions experience relatively lower levels of wellbeing. Indicators assessing community wellbeing reveal regional variation, with communities in the Border and West performing less well in terms of wellbeing compared to other regions. In terms of farm continuity, a higher proportion of dairy farmers have identified a successor. Moreover, in terms of animal wellbeing, representative data from the NFS finds that welfare on dairy farms has remained relatively stable during an expansionary phase following EU milk quota abolition in 2015. These findings indicate that farm level social sustainability varies considerably by farm system and subsequently region. Variations in the FSI scores and those of its components reveal the extent to which farm heterogeneity influences wellbeing levels. Additionally, the underlying farm economic and socio-demographic attributes are influential. This serves to highlight difficulties in applying a common policy approach in the pursuit of improved social sustainability across farm systems with differing wellbeing needs. As the FADN expands its remit to better encapsulate sustainability through the FSDN, it is imperative that additional social sustainability indicators are developed. This thesis finds that, with modifications, the FADN framework retains the ability to effectively assess and collect social sustainability metrics for European farms. Indeed the Teagasc National Farm Survey has been at the forefront in this regard, devising a bank of social sustainability indicators and providing a roadmap for data collection and analysis. This research contributes to the discourse on agricultural social sustainability measurement, through the development of a range of indicators reflective of farmer, animal and community wellbeing dimensions. Recommendations for future data collection and research are also provided.

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