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“I’ve become more aware of the importance of time now”: a mixed methods investigation of temporal experiences, time interventions, and wellbeing in the contexts of the COVID-19 pandemic and hybrid working practices
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Date
2025
Authors
Young, Anna Navin
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Publisher
University College Cork
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Abstract
Individuals’ relationship with time is complex and multifaceted, encompassing both how time is objectively used and subjectively experienced. Time-related challenges are prevalent across the global population, with significant implications for physical and mental health. As such, gaining a deeper understanding of individuals’ relationship with time is paramount to inform the development of evidence-based resources that support individuals and groups to address their time challenges in personally meaningful ways. The current thesis investigates this complex relationship with time in the contemporary contexts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent emergence of widespread hybrid work-time practices.
This thesis consists of four studies and is written in a thesis-by-publication format. The first study, a systematic review, evaluated the effectiveness of time management interventions (TMIs) on workplace wellbeing. The review found limited evidence to support the claim that TMIs improve wellbeing in the workplace and called for more experimental research. Findings also highlighted the need to incorporate subjective experiences of time (SETs) into future time interventions, investigate a wider range of wellbeing outcomes, and improve the transparency and robustness of intervention reporting.
Study Two employed a mixed methods, person-centred approach to investigate SETs during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 272 participants completed the online survey. A latent class analysis (LCA) identified two distinct temporal groups, those with minimal perceived changes and those experiencing varied time changes. Those who reported minimal changes were significantly older than those who experienced a variety of temporal changes. Qualitative responses provided a deeper understanding as to how the two groups experienced their time differently. The study provides a comprehensive examination of how people’s experiences of time varied during the pandemic and the contextual factors that contributed to these differences.
Study Three further investigated experiences of time during the COVID-19 pandemic through a qualitative lens. Data collection involved 21 semi-structured interviews, and reflexive thematic analysis (RTA) of the findings examined the ways in which participants made sense of their time during the pandemic. Temporal sense-making was observed as a complex and personal process involving both the describing and interpreting of experiences. Themes highlighted how participants identified and reflected on critical elements of their relationship with time.
Building on the findings of the aforementioned work, Study Four developed and piloted two novel time interventions, the Reflective Time Journal (RTJ) and Time Awareness Coaching (TAC). A pilot randomised controlled trial (pRCT) was conducted to evaluate the RTJ and TAC interventions in supporting 67 hybrid workers’ wellbeing. The findings from the mixed methods results provided preliminary insights into the feasibility, effectiveness, and acceptability of these interventions, and their potential implications for both research and practice.
Through this series of empirical studies, the thesis contributes to understandings of the complex and multifaceted nature of individuals’ relationship with time. Novel methodological, conceptual, and practical contributions provide implications for how time is both researched and engaged with, particularly in applied contexts. Conducted during the pandemic and early post-pandemic years, the thesis addressed the evolving dynamics of this period, offering insights and implications for individuals, employers, and policymakers navigating the unique challenges and opportunities of modern times.
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Keywords
Applied psychology , Time Studies , COVID-19 pandemic , Hybrid work , Mental health and wellbeing promotion , Intervention development , Mixed methods , Coaching psychology
Citation
Young, A. N. 2025. “I’ve become more aware of the importance of time now”: a mixed methods investigation of temporal experiences, time interventions, and wellbeing in the contexts of the COVID-19 pandemic and hybrid working practices. PhD Thesis, University College Cork.